The COP26 climate summit is the latest in a long series of meetings that have been held over the past few years to discuss climate change.   

Margaret Thatcher, in her final year as Prime Minister in 1989, called for a global agreement on the problem. She warned that the planet could face ‘drought or starvation’ if greenhouse gases emissions continue to rise.

Scientists were warning of the potentially disastrous consequences of failure to act by then.  

The first Conference of the Parties summit (COP) was held in Berlin, Germany in 1995. Angela Merkel was Germany’s Environment Minister. This laid the foundation for the second conference, where the Kyoto Protocol in Japan was adopted in 1997. 

Five years earlier, the world’s leaders met at Rio De Janeiro’s ‘Earth Summit’ to attempt to address climate change.   

It was the 1997 deal which saw the setting of binding targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions – but only for industrialised nations.

Even so, the first major push to combat global warming was derailed when in 2001, US President George Bush stated that his country would not be ratifying the treaty.

Since then, nations have been negotiating new targets at every COP meeting. 

The 2015 Paris Agreement at COP 21 was hailed a major success. However, little has been achieved since then, and former President Donald Trump tarnished its credibility by pulling out of the agreement in 2016. 

The first Conference of the Parties (COP) summit, which took place in Berlin in 1995 and was led by Angela Merkel (pictured) when she was Germany's environment minister, laid the groundwork for the third, where the Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Japan in 1997

The first Conference of the Parties summit (COP) was held in Berlin, Germany in 1995. It was led by Angela Merkel (pictured), who was Germany’s environment minister. This set the stage for the third conference, where the Kyoto Protocol was adopted by Japan in 1997.

The 1997 Kyoto Protocol marked the first time that binding targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions were set ¿ but only for industrialised nations. Above: The then U.S. Vice President Al Gore with Japan's prime minister Ryutaro Hashimoto and the country's environment chief Hiroshi Oki

The 1997 Kyoto Protocol marked the first time that binding targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions were set – but only for industrialised nations. Above: Al Gore (the U.S. Vice President at the time) with Ryutaro Hayashimoto, Japan’s prime minister, and Hiroshi Oki, the country’s environmental chief.

The 2015 Paris Agreement at COP 21, was hailed as a major success, but little progress has been made since then and former U.S. President Donald Trump damaged its credibility when he pulled out of the deal in 2016

Although the 2015 Paris Agreement at COP 21 was hailed as a great success, little progress has been made and former President Donald Trump tarnished its credibility in 2016, when he pulled out from the deal

The early history 

Since before the end of 19th century, scientists have been demonstrating the effects of changing carbon dioxide levels.

Joseph Fourier, a French scientist, first recognized the so-called “greenhouse effect”, which is the process by carbon dioxide trapping heat in the earth’s atmosphere.

John Tyndall, an Irish scientist, measured the heat absorption by greenhouse gasses including carbon dioxide in 1861. He published a paper about his findings in 1861.

A few years earlier, Eunice Newton Foote, an American female scientist, conducted an experiment that revealed the heat-trapping capabilities of carbon dioxide. She also warned in 1856 in a scientific paper that an atmosphere of the gas would cause the Earth to reach a high temperature.

In 1896, Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish physicist, published a paper on ice age, which estimated temperature changes caused by changing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.

The so-called 'greenhouse effect', the process by which carbon dioxide traps heat in the earth's atmosphere, was first recognised by French scientists Joseph Fourier in 1824

Then, in 1896, Swedish physicist Svante Arrhenius published a paper on ice ages which estimated temperature changes due to changing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

French scientists Joseph Fourier (left), first recognized the so-called “greenhouse effect”, which is the process by carbon dioxide trapping heat in the earth’s atmosphere. In 1896, Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish physicist, published a paper about ice ages that estimated temperature changes caused by changing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere.

Nils Ekholm, another Swede, was next to him. He suggested that the atmosphere could expand due to the burning and heating of coal.

Guy Callendar was an amateur meteorologist who combined thousands upon thousands of observations of temperature from all over the world to determine that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions were contributing to rising global temperatures.

Roger Revelle, Oceanographer, first informed the US Congress on climate change in 1956. He warned that ‘we’re making perhaps the most significant geophysical experiment in human history’.

Charles David Keeling began measuring carbon dioxide at Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii shortly thereafter. This produced the ‘Keeling Curve’, which is a clear record showing rising CO2 levels.

Twenty years later, the testimony of James Hansen, a Nasa scientist, to Congress in 1988 was front page. He said that global warming was a ‘already occurring now’ and almost certainly not due natural variation.

In 1938 Guy Callendar, an amateur meteorologist who collected and combined thousands of observations of temperature and carbon dioxide from around the world, was the first to show that human-caused emissions of carbon dioxide were contributing to rising global temperatures

Oceanographer Roger Revelle (right) first briefed the US Congress on climate change in 1956, warning that 'we are making perhaps the greatest geophysical experiment in history'

Guy Callendar (left), an amateur meteorologist, was the first person to prove that human-caused carbon dioxide emissions were contributing to rising temperatures in 1938. He combined thousands of temperature and carbon dioxide observations from around the globe. Roger Revelle, an oceanographer, first informed the US Congress about climate change in 1956. He warned that “we are making perhaps one of the most important geophysical experiments in history.” 

The first global agreement on climate change came three years later, at the Earth Summit in Rio De Janeiro. Above: The then presidential candidate Bill Clinton speaks to the summit in June 1992

Three years later, the Earth Summit at Rio De Janeiro produced the first global climate change agreement. Above: Bill Clinton, then the presidential candidate, speaks at the summit in June 1992

The UN established the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2015 to provide a comprehensive review of current knowledge regarding climate change and its effects.

There was a growing demand for an international treaty to address climate change.

The Montreal Protocol, which was established in 1987, boosted hopes that something could be reached. It led to the phasing-out of CFC chemicals that were causing damage to the ozone layer.

Change calls  

1989: Mrs Thatcher warned that the problem of global climate change was a problem that all of us face and that action must be taken at an international level.

“It is not worth squabbling about who is responsible and who should pay.

“Whole areas could be affected by drought and starvation, if the pattern in rains and monsoons is altered as a consequence of the destruction and accumulation of greenhouse gasses.

“We must look forward, not backward. We will only be able to solve the problems through a large international, cooperative effort.”

She called for a global convention to address climate change.

The PM, who was to be expelled from office by November of that same year, warned of the need for ‘binding’ protocols with a ‘effective system to monitor and supervise their application’.

It was Margaret Thatcher in her final full year as Prime Minister in 1989 who called for a global agreement to tackle the problem, as she warned that the planet could be subject to 'drought and starvation' if greenhouse gas emissions continued unabated. Above: Mrs Thatcher made her plea in a speech to the United Nations

Margaret Thatcher, in her last year as Prime Minister in 1989, called for a global agreement on the problem. She warned that the planet could face ‘drought or starvation’ if greenhouse gases emissions continue to rise. Above: Mrs Thatcher pleads for a global agreement in a speech before the United Nations 

In 1989, Mrs Thatcher warned that 'the problem of global climate change is one that affects us all and action will only be effective if it is taken at the international level'

1989: Mrs Thatcher warned that the problem of global climate change was a problem that all of us face and that action must be taken at an international level.

The IPCC’s first report in the same year warned that “emissions resulting human activities are substantially increasing atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gasses.”

When and where? The 26 COP summits so far 

COP 1, 1995: Berlin (Germany)

COP 2, 1996: Geneva, Switzerland

COP 3: Kyoto, Japan

COP 4, 1998: Buenos Aires, Argentina

COP 5,1999 Bonn, Germany

COP 6 2000: The Hague, Netherlands

COP 7, 2001: Marrakech (Morocco)

COP 8, 2002: New Delhi, India

COP 9, 2003: Milan, Italy

COP 10, 2004: Buenos Aires, Argentina

Montreal, Canada – COP 11, 2005

COP 12, 2006: Nairobi, Kenya

COP 13, 2007: Bali, Indonesia

COP 14, 2008: Poznań, Poland

COP 15, 2009: Copenhagen, Denmark

COP 16, 2010: Cancún, Mexico

COP 17, 2011: Durban (South Africa)

COP 18, 2012: Doha, Qatar

COP 19: Warsaw (Poland), 2013.

COP 20, 2014: Lima, Peru

COP 21 2015: Paris, France

COP 22: Marrakech, Morocco

COP 23: Bonn, Germany

COP 24, 2018: Katowice, Poland

COP 25, 2019, Madrid, Spain

COP 26, 2021, Glasgow, United Kingdom

The first climate summit and the first COP meeting 

The Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, two years later, was the site of the first global climate change agreement.

The treaty was signed by world leaders, including Mrs Thatcher’s successor John Major. It aimed to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the air at a level that would prevent dangerous anthrogenic interference with the climate system.

The goal was to stop carbon emissions from humans affecting the world’s climate.  

Every year, a COP Summit has been held since 1995.

Angela Merkel, Germany’s former environment minister, led COP 1 in Berlin.

Although the negotiations were successful, signs of trouble emerged when the United States tried to stop them from agreeing on legally binding targets or timetables.

Protocol of Kyoto 

The success of Berlin’s summit lies in the fact the document signed by the participants laid the groundwork for the Kyoto Protocol which was signed at COP 3 Japan 1997.

This was the first occasion that binding targets were set for industrialised nations to reduce greenhouse gases emissions.

The legally binding agreement required only developed nations to reduce their emissions by an average 5% below 1990 levels. A system was also established to monitor progress.

China and India, two of the largest emitters of greenhouse gases on the planet, weren’t required to take any action. The details of the targets would be negotiated at subsequent COP summits.

These included COP 4 (Buenos Aires) in 1999, COP 5 (Bonn) in 1999, and COP6 in The Hague.

However, the protocol was dealt a serious blow when, in 2001 – four years before it entered into force – the newly-elected President Bush announced that ratifying it was not in the ‘economic best interest’ of his country, even though it was the world’s biggest emitter of CO2.

After being ratified by enough countries, the Protocol was still in effect at COP 11, Montreal 2005.

Despite the fact that all 36 countries who participated fully in the first commitment period (2008 to 2012) met the targets, global emissions rose by 36% between 1990 and 2010.

Participating governments at COP 13 in Bali in 2007 agreed that the Kyoto Protocol was too narrow in scope as it only focused on developed nations and did not take into account the rising emissions of countries like China and India.

The Bali Roadmap was created to help countries develop and developed countries agree on targets to reduce their emissions.

Delegation members from about 170 countries listen in Kyoto to a speech during the opening session of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

About 170 delegation members listen to a speech in Kyoto during the opening session at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

The Kyoto Protocol was dealt a serious blow when, in 2001 ¿ four years before it entered into force ¿ the newly-elected President Bush announced that ratifying it was not in the 'economic best interest' of his country, even though it was the world's biggest emitter of CO2

The Kyoto Protocol was dealt a serious blow when, in 2001 – four years before it entered into force – the newly-elected President Bush announced that ratifying it was not in the ‘economic best interest’ of his country, even though it was the world’s biggest emitter of CO2

The objective of the 1992 treaty which was signed by world leaders including Mrs Thatcher's successor John Major, was to 'stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system'. In simpler terms, the aim was to prevent carbon emissions caused by humans from negatively effecting the world's climate

The 1992 treaty, signed by world leaders, including Mrs Thatcher’s successor John Major was designed to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the air at a level that would prevent anthropogenic interference with climate systems. In simpler terms, the goal was to prevent human carbon emissions from adversely affecting the world’s climate.

COP 1 in Berlin was led by Germany's then-environment minister Angela Merkel. Whilst the negotiations were fruitful, signs of trouble were evident when the United States pushed back on agreeing to legally binding targets and timetables

Angela Merkel, Germany’s current environment minister, was the leader of COP 1. While the negotiations were successful, there were signs of trouble when the United States refused to agree to legally binding deadlines and targets.

Failure in Copenhagen 

The world’s nations failed in Copenhagen to reach a binding agreement at COP 15 on 15 September 2009. This was after the original Kyoto targets had expired in 2012.

They were affected by the effects of the global economic crisis that began two years ago, as well as the animosity between nations.

Participants came up with a non-binding agreement that global temperatures shouldn’t rise by 2 degrees Celsius (35F), above preindustrial nations.

Barack Obama, the then-President of the United States, warned that it was not enough.

At COP 15 in Copenhagen in 2009, the world's nations failed to reach an agreement on binding commitments for when the initial Kyoto targets expired in 2012. Above: The then US President Barack Obama speaking at the conference

The world’s nations failed in 2009 to reach an agreement at COP 15 in Copenhagen on binding commitments when the initial Kyoto targets were set to expire in 2012. Above: Barack Obama, then the US President, speaks at the conference

NASA declared that the first ten years of the 20th century were the warmest in recorded history, making the situation even more dire.

Additional wrangling 

In 2010, at COP 16 in Cancun Mexico, countries including India, China, and the United States committed for the first time that global temperature rises should not exceed 2C.

A pot of money set up called the Green Climate Fund – which was meant to be $100billion to help developing countries mitigate the effects of climate change – was also set up. However, only $3billion had been contributed by 2019

In 2011, COP17 in Durban (South Africa) almost collapsed before anything was even agreed to. China, India, and the U.S. rejected a new legal commitment to replace the Kyoto Protocol’s first set of emission reductions.

COP17 in Durban, South Africa, in 2011, nearly collapsed before anything had even been agreed when China, the U.S. and India rejected a proposed new legal commitment to replace the first set of emission reductions agreed to in the Kyoto Protocol. Above: The UK's then Energy and Climate Change Secretary Chris Huhne is seen speaking at COP17

Delegates are seen sleeping in the conference hall in Durban

In 2011, COP17, South Africa’s conference in Durban, nearly collapsed before anything could be agreed upon. China, India, and the U.S. rejected a proposal for a new legal obligation to replace the Kyoto Protocol’s initial set of emission reductions. Above: Chris Huhne, the UK’s Energy and Climate Change Secretary at the time, is seen speaking at COP17. Delegates are seen sleeping in Durban’s conference hall.

They did however agree to work together towards the creation of a new legally binding agreement in 2015.

This would be different than the Kyoto Protocol in that it would apply to both developing and developed countries.

Despite this, COP 18 in Doha, 2012 was a moderate success. It included an agreement for developing nations to assist developing countries with adaptation and mitigation of the effects of climate changes.

By that time, the prospects of a solution for the climate crisis were already in shambles. Canada pulled out of the Kyoto Protocol, Japan and Russia both said they would not make any new commitments.

Following the COP 19 conference in Warsaw in 2015, representatives from developing countries walked out after the developed nations rejected a new funding mechanism that would help them deal with the ‘loss of damage’ caused by climate changes.

The Paris Agreement 

It was the 2015 COP 21 Paris summit, which campaigners hailed as being the most meaningful in recent years.

Participating countries agreed to a global agreement to limit temperature rises well below 2C above preindustrial levels and to continue efforts to reduce warming to 1.5C.

The new deal saw nations agree to make what were called nationally determined contributions (NDCs), but these were determined by the countries and there was no mechanism to ensure they met the targets.

It was the landmark COP 21 summit in Paris in 2015 which was hailed by campaigners as being the most meaningful and exciting in years. Above, Mrs Merkel, who had by then long been Germany's leader, is seen shaking hands with Prince Charles as former UK Prime Minister David Cameron looks on

It was the 2015 COP 21 summit, held in Paris, that campaigners hailed as the most important and exciting in many years. Above, former Prime Minister David Cameron, looking on, sees Mrs Merkel, Germany’s leader for a long time, shaking hands with Prince Charles.

Former Mayor of New York City, Michael Bloomberg and Mayor of Paris, Anne Hidalgo pose with thousands of mayors from different cities around the world at the

Former Mayor of New York City Michael Bloomberg and Mayor Paris Anne Hidalgo pose together with thousands of mayors representing different cities around the globe at the 

At COP 22, 2016, the Paris agreement was facing a major blow. The new U.S. president Donald Trump announced that he was going out of the Paris deal and said that it imposed ‘draconian fiscal and economic burdens’.

In 2018, COP24 in Poland decided the rules for the implementation of the Paris Agreement. This was the same year as the IPCC warned about the dire consequences if the global average temperature rises to 1.5C.

The subsequent summit in Madrid – the final one before the coronavirus pandemic delayed COP 26 until this year – was described as a ‘lost opportunity’ by UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres.